![]() ![]() Cartilage Cartilage Cellular Composition and Key Signaling Molecules in ChondrogenesisĬartilage is a hypocellular tissue, with only 4% of its wet weight consisting of a highly differentiated cell population, called chondrocytes ( Matzat et al., 2013). Herein, we briefly describe the cellular and extracellular composition and architecture of cartilage, along with key modulators of chondrogenesis, and we comprehensively review advancements and shortfalls of electrospun scaffolds in cartilage engineering. Among them, electrospinning has emerged as a promising technique, due to its high versatility (e.g., ability to produce functionalised nanofibrous scaffolds with a variety of orientations, sizes, and mechanical properties) ( Garg and Bowlin, 2011 Casanellas et al., 2018 Casanova et al., 2018 Li et al., 2018 Liu et al., 2018). Various scaffold fabrication technologies have been assessed over the years for cartilage engineering with variable degree of efficiency ( Cheng et al., 2019 Li et al., 2019). Cartilage engineering constitute the ultimate frontier, as all other interventions are nothing more than relieving the pain or delaying tissue degradation ( Hunziker, 2002 Musumeci et al., 2014). There are numerous treatments for articular cartilage defects, including extensive surgical interventions (e.g., osteotomy, distraction of joints), therapeutic interventions without active biologics (e.g., lavage, arthroscopy, debridement, shaving, laser chondroplasty, abrasion chondroplasty, pridie drilling, microfracture, and spongialization), therapeutic interventions with active biologics (e.g., perichondrial/periosteal grafts, osteochondral transplantation, allogenic osteochondral, and chondral grafting) and tissue engineering (a still elusive combination of scaffolds, cells, biologics). This prevalence is projected to increase due to increasing aging population and obesity ( Sun et al., 2015). Women have a higher age-related prevalence of arthritis than men, 10% men and 13% in women suffer from aged-related OA (aged 60 years or older) ( Zhang and Jordan, 2010). In 2013, OA was the second most expensive health condition treated at US hospitals with $16.5 billion expenditure ( Torio and Moore, 2013). The observed symptoms (e.g., pain, stiffness, joint instability, and pain-related psychological distress) start approximately at the age of 55 and have devastating consequences in the quality of life of the patients ( Hunter et al., 2008 Van Spil et al., 2019). Conjecturally, up to 240 million people around the world suffer from OA. Thus, it causes a more conducive environment for tissue degradation, which finally ends up with osteoarthritis (OA) ( Homandberg et al., 1993 Homandberg and Hui, 1996 Cecil et al., 2005 Kurz et al., 2005 Goldring et al., 2011 Camp et al., 2014). This inflammation increases the level of synovial cytokines, alters the resident cell phenotypes and induces matrix-degrading enzymes. The breakdown molecules following injury cause an inflammation in the joints. It has been reported that 60–66% of routine knee arthroscopies caused by articular cartilage defects. Once injured, it loses much of its carrying capacity, causing a susceptible environment for wearing and tearing between the joints ( Correa and Lietman, 2017 Zhang et al., 2019). Herein, we comprehensively review advancements and shortfalls of various electrospun scaffolds in cartilage engineering.Īdult articular cartilage is a relatively thin (2–4 mm), aneural, avascular, and alymphatic tissue that acts as cushion against physiological loads at joints. Among the various scaffold fabrication technologies available, electrospinning is continuously gaining pace, as it can produce nano- to micro- fibrous scaffolds that imitate architectural features of native extracellular matrix supramolecular assemblies and can deliver variable cell populations and bioactive molecules. To this end, tissue engineering therapies provide a promise to deliver a functional cartilage substitute. Surgical procedures and cell-based therapies have failed to deliver a functional therapy. Articular cartilage defects progress to osteoarthritis, which negatively (e.g., remarkable pain, decreased mobility, distress) affects millions of people worldwide and is associated with excessive healthcare costs. 2Science Foundation Ireland, Centre for Research in Medical Devices, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, IrelandĪrticular cartilage defects remain a clinical challenge.1Regenerative, Modular & Developmental Engineering Laboratory, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland. ![]()
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